Ngaphambi kokuba izifo ziqede izifo ezingaba yizigidigidi ezintathu noma ngaphezulu, lesi sihlahla sasiza ekwakheni iMelika ethuthukile. Ukuze sibuyisele inkazimulo yayo elahlekile, kungadingeka samukele futhi silungise imvelo.
Ngesinye isikhathi ngo-1989, uHerbert Darling wathola ucingo: Umzingeli wamtshela ukuthi uhlangane nomuthi omude we-chestnut waseMelika endaweni kaDarling eZor Valley entshonalanga yeNew York. UDarling wayazi ukuthi ama-chestnut ake aba ngesinye sezihlahla ezibaluleke kakhulu endaweni. Wayazi nokuthi isikhunta esibulalayo sacishe saqeda lolu hlobo isikhathi esingaphezu kwekhulu nesigamu. Lapho ezwa umbiko womzingeli ngokubona i-chestnut ephilayo, isiqu se-chestnut sasingamafidi amabili ubude futhi safika esakhiweni esinezitezi ezinhlanu, wangabaza. “Angiqiniseki ukuthi ngikholwa ukuthi uyazi ukuthi iyini,” kusho uDarling.
Lapho uDarling ethola umuthi, kwakunjengokubuka isithombe esinganekwane. Wathi: “Kwakuqondile futhi kuphelele ukwenza isampula—kwakukuhle kakhulu.” Kodwa uDarling wabona nokuthi umuthi uyafa. Kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo-1900, uye wahlaselwa ubhubhane olufanayo, okulinganiselwa ukuthi lubangele ukufa kwabantu abayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezintathu noma ngaphezulu ngenxa yezifo ezinjalo. Lesi yisifo sokuqala esithwalwa ngabantu esibhubhisa kakhulu izihlahla emlandweni wanamuhla. UDarling wacabanga ukuthi, uma engenakukwazi ukusindisa lowo muthi, okungenani ubengasindisa imbewu yawo. Kunenkinga eyodwa kuphela: umuthi awenzi lutho ngoba azikho ezinye izihlahla ze-chestnut eziseduze ezingawuthulula impova.
UDarling ungunjiniyela osebenzisa izindlela zonjiniyela ukuxazulula izinkinga. NgoJuni olandelayo, lapho izimbali eziphuzi ezikhanyayo zisakazeke ophahleni oluhlaza lwesihlahla, uDarling wagcwalisa izinhlamvu zokudubula ngempuphu yokudubula, eyathathwa ezimbalini zesilisa zesinye isihlahla se-chestnut ayesifundile, washayela waya enyakatho. Kwathatha ihora nesigamu. Wadubula isihlahla endiza enophephela emhlane eqashiwe. (Uphethe inkampani yokwakha ephumelelayo engakwazi ukukhokhela izinto eziningi.) Lo mzamo wehluleka. Ngonyaka olandelayo, uDarling wazama futhi. Kulokhu, yena nendodana yakhe bahudula isikafula baya ezitsheni ze-chestnut esiqongweni segquma futhi bakha ipulatifomu engamamitha angu-80 ukuphakama esikhathini esingaphezu kwamasonto amabili. Intombazane yami yakhuphuka ophahleni yahlanza izimbali ngezimbali ezifana nezimpethu kwesinye isihlahla se-chestnut.
Ngaleyo nkathi yasekwindla, amagatsha esihlahla sikaDarling akhiqiza ama-burrs ambozwe ameva aluhlaza. Lawa meva ayemakhulu futhi ebukhali kangangokuthi angase adidaniswe ne-cacti. Isivuno asiphezulu, kunamantongomane angaba yi-100, kodwa uDarling utshale amanye futhi wabeka ithemba. Yena nomngane wakhe baphinde baxhumana noCharles Maynard noWilliam Powell, izazi ezimbili zezakhi zofuzo zezihlahla e-State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry eSyracuse (uChuck noBill bashona). Muva nje baqale iphrojekthi yocwaningo lwe-chestnut enesabelomali esiphansi lapho. UDarling wabanika ama-chestnut wabe esecela ososayensi ukuthi bawasebenzise yini ukuwabuyisa. UDarling uthe: “Lokhu kubonakala kuyinto enhle.” “Yonke i-United States empumalanga.” Kodwa-ke, eminyakeni embalwa kamuva, isihlahla sakhe safa.
Selokhu abantu baseYurophu baqala ukuhlala eNyakatho Melika, indaba ngamahlathi ezwekazi ibilokhu ilahleka kakhulu. Kodwa-ke, isiphakamiso sikaDarling manje sesibhekwa ngabaningi njengenye yamathuba athembisayo kakhulu okuqala ukubuyekeza indaba - ekuqaleni kwalonyaka, i-Templeton World Charity Foundation yabeka iphrojekthi kaMaynard noPowell eyanikeza iningi lomlando wayo, futhi lo mzamo wakwazi ukudiliza umsebenzi omncane owabiza ngaphezu kwamaRandi ayizigidi ezintathu. Kwakuyisipho esikhulu kunazo zonke esake sanikelwa eyunivesithi. Ucwaningo lwezazi zezakhi zofuzo luphoqa izazi zezemvelo ukuthi zibhekane nethuba ngendlela entsha futhi ngezinye izikhathi engakhululekile, yokuthi ukulungisa umhlaba wemvelo akusho ukuthi kufanele ubuyele eNsimini yase-Edene engashintshi. Kunalokho, kungase kusho ukwamukela indima esiyithathile: unjiniyela wakho konke okuhlanganisa nemvelo.
Amaqabunga e-chestnut amade futhi anamazinyo, futhi abukeka njengezinsika ezimbili ezincane zesaha eziluhlaza ezixhunywe emuva emuva emthanjeni ophakathi weqabunga. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, amaqabunga amabili axhunywe esiqwini. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, akha isihloko esibukhali, esivame ukugoba eceleni. Lesi simo esingalindelekile sinqamula izindunduma eziluhlaza nezihlabathi ezithule emahlathini, futhi iphupho elimangalisayo labahambi ngezinyawo lavusa ukunaka kwabantu, libakhumbuza ngohambo lwabo ehlathini elalinezihlahla eziningi ezinamandla.
Kuphela ngezincwadi kanye nenkumbulo lapho singaziqonda khona ngokugcwele lezi zihlahla. ULucille Griffin, umqondisi omkhulu we-American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, wake wabhala ukuthi lapho uzobona ama-chestnut ecebile kangangokuthi entwasahlobo, izimbali ezithambile, ezithambile esihlahleni “njengamagagasi anegwebu ayehla entabeni”, okuholela ezinkumbulweni zomkhulu. Ekwindla, umuthi uzoqhuma futhi, kulokhu unezimbotshana ezihlabayo ezimboza ubumnandi. “Lapho ama-chestnut esevuthiwe, ngaqoqa ingxenye yebhashel ebusika,” kubhala uThoreau ophilayo encwadini ethi “Walden.” “Kuleso sikhathi, kwakujabulisa kakhulu ukuzulazula ehlathini lama-chestnut elingapheli eLincoln ngaleso sikhathi.”
Ama-chestnut athembeke kakhulu. Ngokungafani nezihlahla ze-oki ezilahla ama-acorn kuphela eminyakeni embalwa, izihlahla ze-chestnut zikhiqiza inani elikhulu lezitshalo zamantongomane njalo ekwindla. Ama-chestnut nawo kulula ukuwagaya: ungawakhipha bese udla aluhlaza. (Zama ukusebenzisa ama-acorn acebile ngama-tannins - noma ungakwenzi.) Wonke umuntu udla ama-chestnut: inyamazane, i-squirrel, ibhere, inyoni, umuntu. Abalimi badedela izingulube zabo futhi bakhuluphale ehlathini. Ngesikhathi sikaKhisimusi, izitimela ezigcwele ama-chestnut zazigingqika zisuka ezintabeni ziye edolobheni. Yebo, zashiswa ngempela ngumlilo omkhulu. “Kuthiwa kwezinye izindawo, abalimi bathola imali engenayo eningi ngokuthengiswa kwama-chestnut kunayo yonke eminye imikhiqizo yezolimo,” kusho uWilliam L. Bray, umphathi wokuqala wesikole lapho uMaynard noPowell basebenza khona kamuva. Yabhalwa ngo-1915. Yisihlahla sabantu, iningi laso elikhula ehlathini.
Iphinde inikeze okungaphezu kokudla nje kuphela. Izihlahla ze-chestnut zingaphakama zibe ngamafidi angu-120, kanti amamitha okuqala angu-50 awaphazanyiswa amagatsha noma amafindo. Leli yiphupho labagawuli bemithi. Nakuba kungesiwo umuthi omuhle kakhulu noma oqinile kunayo yonke, ukhula ngokushesha kakhulu, ikakhulukazi uma uphinda uhlume ngemva kokunqunywa futhi ungaboli. Njengoba ukuqina kwezibopho zesitimela nezinsika zocingo kudlula ubuhle, i-Chestnut yasiza ekwakheni iMelika ethuthukile. Izinkulungwane zezibaya, amakhabhini namasonto enziwe ngama-chestnut asamile; umbhali ngo-1915 walinganisela ukuthi lolu uhlobo lwemithi olugawulwe kakhulu e-United States.
Eningini lempumalanga - izihlahla zisukela eMississippi kuya eMaine, futhi kusukela ogwini lwe-Atlantic kuya eMfuleni iMississippi - ama-chestnuts nawo angenye yazo. Kodwa kuma-Appalachians, kwakuyisihlahla esikhulu. Izigidigidi zama-chestnut zihlala kulezi zintaba.
Kuyafaneleka ukuthi i-Fusarium wilt yaqala ukubonakala eNew York, okuyisango eliya kubantu abaningi baseMelika. Ngo-1904, kwatholakala ukutheleleka okungajwayelekile emagxolweni esihlahla se-chestnut esisengozini yokuqothulwa eBronx Zoo. Abacwaningi bathola ngokushesha ukuthi isikhunta esabangela ukusha kwebhaktheriya (kamuva esabizwa ngokuthi i-Cryphonectria parasitica) safika ezihlahleni zaseJapan ezingenisiwe ekuqaleni kuka-1876. (Ngokuvamile kuba nesikhathi esilinganiselwe phakathi kokwethulwa kohlobo oluthile kanye nokutholakala kwezinkinga ezisobala.)
Ngokushesha abantu ezifundazweni eziningana babike ukuthi izihlahla ziyafa. Ngo-1906, uWilliam A. Murrill, isazi sezifo zezitshalo e-New York Botanical Garden, washicilela isihloko sokuqala sesayensi ngalesi sifo. UMuriel waveza ukuthi lesi sikhunta sibangela ukutheleleka kwe-blister ephuzi-nsundu egxolweni lesihlahla se-chestnut, okusenza sihlanzeke sizungeze isiqu. Lapho izakhamzimba namanzi kungasakwazi ukugeleza phezulu naphansi emithanjeni yamagxolo ngaphansi kwegxolo, konke okungaphezu kwendandatho yokufa kuzofa.
Abanye abantu abakwazi ukucabanga—noma abafuni abanye bacabange—ngesihlahla esinyamalala ehlathini. Ngo-1911, iSober Paragon Chestnut Farm, inkampani yezingane zasenkulisa ePennsylvania, yayikholelwa ukuthi lesi sifo “sasingaphezu nje kokwesaba.” Ukuba khona isikhathi eside kwezintatheli ezingenandaba. Ipulazi lavalwa ngo-1913. Eminyakeni emibili edlule, iPennsylvania yabiza ikomidi lesifo se-chestnut, elagunyazwa ukusebenzisa ama-US$275,000 (imali enkulu ngaleso sikhathi), futhi yamemezela iphakethe lamandla okuthatha izinyathelo zokulwa nalolu buhlungu, okuhlanganisa nelungelo lokubhubhisa izihlahla endaweni yangasese. Odokotela bezifo batusa ukususa zonke izihlahla ze-chestnut emakhilomitha ambalwa ukusuka ngaphambili kokutheleleka okuyinhloko ukuze kukhiqizwe umphumela wokuvimbela umlilo. Kodwa kuvela ukuthi le fungus ingagxumela ezihlahleni ezingathelelekile, futhi ama-spores ayo athelelekile ngumoya, izinyoni, izinambuzane kanye nabantu. Uhlelo lwashiywa.
Ngo-1940, cishe azikho izinhlobo ezinkulu ze-chestnut ezazithelelekile. Namuhla, inani lezigidigidi zamaRandi selisusiwe. Njengoba i-fusarium wilt ingakwazi ukusinda enhlabathini, izimpande ze-chestnut ziyaqhubeka nokuhluma, futhi ezingaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-400 zazo zisasele ehlathini. Kodwa-ke, i-Fusarium wilt yathola indawo yokugcina amanzi esihlahleni se-oki lapho yayihlala khona ngaphandle kokubangela umonakalo omkhulu kumnikazi wayo. Ukusuka lapho, isakazeka ngokushesha ibe amahlumela amasha e-chestnut bese iwaphonsa phansi, ngokuvamile isikhathi eside ngaphambi kokuba afike esigabeni sokuqhakaza.
Imboni yezinkuni ithole ezinye izindlela: i-oki, iphayini, i-walnut, kanye nomlotha. Ukushiswa kwesikhumba, enye imboni enkulu ethembele ezihlahleni ze-chestnut, sekushintshele kuma-ejenti okushiswa kwesikhumba okwenziwa. Kwabalimi abaningi abampofu, akukho okushintshayo: akukho omunye umuthi wendabuko onikeza abalimi nezilwane zabo amakhalori namaprotheni amahhala, athembekile futhi anele. Ukushiswa kwe-chestnut kungathiwa kuqeda umkhuba ovamile wezolimo ezizimele zase-Appalachian, okuphoqa abantu endaweni ukuba babe nokukhetha okusobala: ukuya emayini yamalahle noma ukufuduka. Isazi-mlando uDonald Davis sabhala ngo-2005: “Ngenxa yokufa kwe-chestnut, umhlaba wonke ufile, kuqedwa amasiko okusinda abelokhu ekhona eziNtabeni zase-Appalachian iminyaka engaphezu kwamakhulu amane.”
UPowell wakhulela kude kakhulu nama-Appalachian nama-chestnut. Uyise wayesebenza e-Air Force futhi wathuthela emndenini wakhe: e-Indiana, eFlorida, eJalimane, kanye nasogwini olusempumalanga yeMaryland. Nakuba achitha umsebenzi wakhe eNew York, izinkulumo zakhe zagcina ubuqotho beMidwest kanye nobandlululo olucashile kodwa olubonakalayo lwaseNingizimu. Imikhuba yakhe elula kanye nesitayela sakhe sokuthunga esilula kuyahambisana, kufaka phakathi amabhulukwe ebhulukwe elinokushintshana kwehembe elithambile okubonakala kungapheli. I-interjection yakhe ayithandayo kakhulu "yi-wow".
UPowell uhlela ukuba udokotela wezilwane kuze kube yilapho uprofesa wezakhi zofuzo emthembisa ithemba lezolimo ezintsha, eziluhlaza ezisekelwe ezitshalweni eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo ezingakhiqiza amakhono azo okuvimbela izinambuzane nezifo. “Ngacabanga ukuthi, wow, akukuhle ukwenza izitshalo ezingazivikela ezinambuzaneni, futhi akudingeki uzifafaze ngezibulala-zinambuzane?” kusho uPowell. “Yebo, wonke umhlaba awulandeli umqondo ofanayo.”
Lapho uPowell efika esikoleni sokufunda iziqu e-Utah State University ngo-1983, wayengenandaba. Kodwa-ke, kwenzeka ukuthi ajoyine ilabhorethri yesazi sezinto eziphilayo, futhi wayesebenza ngegciwane elalingaqeda amandla isikhunta se-blight. Imizamo yabo yokusebenzisa leli gciwane ayizange ihambe kahle kakhulu: alizange lisakazeke lisuka esihlahleni liye kwesinye, ngakho-ke kwadingeka lenziwe ngokwezifiso zezinhlobo eziningi zesikhunta ngazinye. Naphezu kwalokhu, uPowell wahlabeka umxhwele ngendaba yesihlahla esikhulu esiwa phansi futhi wanikeza ikhambi lesayensi lokwenzeka kwamaphutha amabi enziwe ngabantu. Uthe: “Ngenxa yokuphathwa kabi kwezimpahla zethu ezihamba emhlabeni wonke, singenise ngengozi amagciwane.” “Ngacabanga: Wow, lokhu kuyathakazelisa. Kukhona ithuba lokukubuyisela.”
UPowell wayengeyena umzamo wokuqala wokuqeda ukulahlekelwa. Ngemva kokuba sekucacile ukuthi ama-chestnut aseMelika ayezohluleka, i-USDA yazama ukutshala izihlahla ze-chestnut zaseShayina, umzala omelana kakhulu nokubuna, ukuze iqonde ukuthi lolu hlobo lungathatha indawo yama-chestnut aseMelika. Kodwa-ke, ama-chestnut akhula kakhulu ngaphandle, futhi afana kakhulu nezihlahla zezithelo kunezihlahla zezithelo. Ayefinyezwa ehlathini yizihlahla ze-oki nezinye izihlahla ezinkulu zaseMelika. Ukukhula kwawo kuyavinjelwa, noma avele afe. ​​Ososayensi bazama nokuzala ama-chestnut avela e-United States naseShayina ndawonye, ​​benethemba lokukhiqiza umuthi onezimpawu ezinhle zombili. Imizamo kahulumeni yehluleka futhi yayekwa.
UPowell wagcina esebenza e-State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry, lapho ahlangana khona noChuck Maynard, isazi sezakhi zofuzo esatshala izihlahla elabhorethri. Eminyakeni embalwa edlule, ososayensi bakha izicubu zezitshalo zokuqala eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo - banezela isakhi sofuzo esinikeza ukumelana namagciwane kugwayi ukuze kuboniswe ubuchwepheshe kunokusetshenziswa kwezentengiselwano. UMaynard (Maynard) waqala ukungena kwezobuchwepheshe obusha, ngenkathi efuna ubuchwepheshe obuwusizo obuhlobene nabo. Ngaleso sikhathi, uDarling wayenembewu kanye nenselele: ukulungisa ama-chestnut aseMelika.
Eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane yemikhuba yokuzalanisa izitshalo yendabuko, abalimi (nososayensi bamuva) bahlanganise izinhlobo nezici ezifiselekayo. Ngemuva kwalokho, izakhi zofuzo zihlanganiswa ngokwemvelo, futhi abantu bakhetha izingxube ezithembisayo zekhwalithi ephezulu - izithelo ezinkulu, ezimnandi kakhulu noma ukumelana nezifo. Ngokuvamile, kuthatha izizukulwane eziningana ukukhiqiza umkhiqizo. Le nqubo ihamba kancane futhi iyadida kancane. UDarling wazibuza ukuthi le ndlela izokhiqiza yini isihlahla esihle njengemvelo yakhe yasendle. Wangitshela: “Ngicabanga ukuthi singenza kangcono.”
Ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo busho ukulawula okukhulu: noma ngabe isakhi sofuzo esithile sivela kohlobo olungahlobene, singakhethwa ngenhloso ethile bese sifakwa ku-genome yesinye isidalwa. (Izinto eziphilayo ezinezakhi zofuzo ezivela ezinhlotsheni ezahlukene “ziguqulwa ngokwezakhi zofuzo.” Muva nje, ososayensi bathuthukise amasu okuhlela ngqo i-genome yezinto eziphilayo eziqondiwe.) Lobu buchwepheshe buthembisa ukunemba kanye nesivinini esingakaze sibonwe. UPowell ukholelwa ukuthi lokhu kubonakala kufaneleka kakhulu kuma-chestnut aseMelika, awabiza ngokuthi “izihlahla ezicishe ziphelele”—aqinile, amade, futhi acebile ngemithombo yokudla, adinga ukulungiswa okuqondile kakhulu: ukumelana nokulimala kwamagciwane.
Ngiyavuma. Uthe: “Kumelwe sibe nonjiniyela ebhizinisini lethu.” “Kusukela ekwakheni kuya ekwakheni lokhu kumane nje kuyindlela yokwenza izinto ngokuzenzakalela.”
UPowell noMaynard balinganisela ukuthi kungathatha iminyaka eyishumi ukuthola izakhi zofuzo ezinika ukumelana, ukuthuthukisa ubuchwepheshe bokuzifaka ku-genome ye-chestnut, bese zikhula. “Siyaqagela nje,” kusho uPowell. “Akekho onezakhi zofuzo ezinika ukumelana nesikhunta. Ngempela saqala endaweni engenalutho.”
UDarling wafuna ukwesekwa yi-American Chestnut Foundation, inhlangano engenzi nzuzo eyasungulwa ekuqaleni kwawo-1980. Umholi wayo wamtshela ukuthi empeleni wayelahlekile. Bazibophezele ekuhlanganiseni futhi bahlala beqaphile ngobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo, okuvuse ukuphikiswa okuvela kubashisekeli bezemvelo. Ngakho-ke, uDarling wadala inhlangano yakhe engenzi nzuzo ukuze axhase umsebenzi wobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo. UPowell uthe inhlangano yabhalela uMaynard noPowell isheke lokuqala ngamaRandi angu-30,000. (Ngo-1990, inhlangano kazwelonke yashintsha futhi yamukela iqembu likaDarling elifuna ukuhlukana njengegatsha layo lokuqala likahulumeni, kodwa amanye amalungu ayesakungabaza noma ephikisana ngokuphelele nobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo.)
UMaynard noPowell basebenza. Cishe ngokushesha, isikhathi sabo esilinganiselwe sabonakala singenakwenzeka. Isithiyo sokuqala ukuthola indlela yokutshala ama-chestnut elabhorethri. UMaynard wazama ukuxuba amaqabunga e-chestnut kanye ne-hormone yokukhula esitsheni se-petri esiyindilinga esingajulile sepulasitiki, indlela esetshenziswa ukutshala ama-poplar. Kwavela ukuthi lokhu akunakwenzeka. Izihlahla ezintsha ngeke zikhule izimpande namahlumela avela kumaseli akhethekile. UMaynard uthe: “Ngingumholi womhlaba wonke ekubulaleni izihlahla ze-chestnut.” Umcwaningi eNyuvesi yaseGeorgia, uScott Merkle (Scott Merkle) ekugcineni wafundisa uMaynard indlela yokushintsha kusukela ekuthuthweni kwempova kuya ku-Plant chestnut kuma-embryos alandelayo esigabeni sokukhula.
Ukuthola i-gene efanele - umsebenzi kaPowell - nakho kwaba yinselele. Wachitha iminyaka eminingana ecwaninga nge-compound elwa namagciwane esekelwe ku-genes yexoxo, kodwa wayiyeka le compound ngenxa yokukhathazeka ngokuthi umphakathi ungase ungazamukeli izihlahla ezinamaxoxo. Waphinde wafuna i-gene elwa ne-bacterial blight kuma-chestnut, kodwa wathola ukuthi ukuvikela isihlahla kuhilela izakhi zofuzo eziningi (bathole okungenani eziyisithupha). Kwabe sekuthi, ngo-1997, uzakwabo wabuya emhlanganweni wesayensi wafaka uhlu lwezifinyezo kanye nokwethulwa. UPowell waphawula isihloko esithi “Ukuvezwa kwe-oxalate oxidase ezitshalweni eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo kunikeza ukumelana ne-oxalate kanye ne-oxalate-producing fungi”. Ocwaningweni lwakhe lwegciwane, uPowell wayazi ukuthi i-wilt fungi ikhipha i-oxalic acid ukubulala igxolo le-chestnut futhi yenze kube lula ukuyigaya. UPowell waqaphela ukuthi uma i-chestnut ingakhiqiza i-oxalate oxidase yayo (iphrotheni ekhethekile engaphula i-oxalate), khona-ke ingase ikwazi ukuzivikela. Wathi: “Leso kwakuyisikhathi sami sase-Eureka.”
Kuvela ukuthi izitshalo eziningi zinezakhi zofuzo ezizivumela ukuthi zikhiqize i-oxalate oxidase. Kumcwaningi owanikeza inkulumo, uPowell uthole uhlobo lukakolweni. Umfundi ophothule iziqu uLinda Polin McGuigan wathuthukisa ubuchwepheshe be-"gene gun" bokufaka izakhi zofuzo kuma-chestnut embryo, enethemba lokuthi zingafakwa ku-DNA yombungu. Izakhi zofuzo zahlala okwesikhashana ku-embryo, kodwa zanyamalala. Ithimba locwaningo lashiya le ndlela lashintshela kubhaktheriya elakha kudala indlela yokusika i-DNA yezinye izinto eziphilayo nokufaka izakhi zofuzo zazo. Emvelweni, ama-microorganisms engeza izakhi zofuzo eziphoqa umninimzi ukuthi enze ukudla kwamagciwane. Izazi zofuzo zahlasela leli bhaktheriya ukuze likwazi ukufaka noma yiliphi izakhi zofuzo usosayensi alifunayo. UMcGuigan wathola ikhono lokufaka ngokuthembekile izakhi zofuzo zikakolweni namaprotheni omaka kuma-chestnut embryo. Lapho iphrotheni ishiswa ngaphansi kwe-microscope, iphrotheni izokhipha ukukhanya okuluhlaza, okubonisa ukufakwa okuphumelelayo. (Ithimba layeka ngokushesha ukusebenzisa amaprotheni omaka - akekho owayefuna umuthi ongakhanya.) UMaynard wabiza le ndlela ngokuthi “into enhle kakhulu emhlabeni.”
Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, uMaynard noPowell bakhe umugqa wokuhlanganisa i-chestnut, manje ofinyelela ezitezi eziningana zesakhiwo esihle sokucwaninga amahlathi esenziwe ngezitini nodaka ngawo-1960, kanye nesikhungo esisha esikhazimulayo se-"Biotech Accelerator" esingaphandle kwekhampasi. Inqubo kuqala ihilela ukukhetha ama-embryo ahluma emaseli afana nezakhi zofuzo (ama-embryo amaningi enziwe elebhu awakwenzi lokhu, ngakho-ke akusizi ngalutho ukudala ama-clone) nokufaka izakhi zofuzo zikakolweni. Amaseli e-embryonic, njenge-agar, ayizinto ezifana ne-pudding ezikhishwe ku-algae. Ukuze baguqule i-embryo ibe umuthi, abacwaningi bangeze i-growth hormone. Amakhulu ezitsha zepulasitiki ezimise okwe-cube ezinezihlahla ezincane ze-chestnut ezingenazimpande zingafakwa eshalofini ngaphansi kwesibani esinamandla se-fluorescent. Ekugcineni, ososayensi basebenzise i-rooting hormone, batshala izihlahla zabo zokuqala ezitsheni ezigcwele inhlabathi, futhi bazibeka ekamelweni lokukhula elilawulwa ukushisa. Akumangazi ukuthi izihlahla ezise-laboratory zisesimweni esibi ngaphandle. Ngakho-ke, abacwaningi bazihlanganisa nezihlahla zasendle ukuze bakhiqize amasampula aqinile kodwa asamelana nokuhlolwa kwensimu.
Ehlobo ezimbili ezedlule, uHannah Pilkey, umfundi ophothule elabhorethri likaPowell, wangibonisa ukuthi ngingakwenza kanjani lokhu. Watshala isikhunta esibangela ukubola kwamagciwane esitsheni esincane sepulasitiki i-petri. Kulesi simo esivaliwe, igciwane eliphuzi eliphuzi libukeka lingenabungozi futhi licishe libe lihle. Kunzima ukucabanga ukuthi liyimbangela yokufa nokubhujiswa kwabantu abaningi.
Indlulamithi eyayiphansi yaguqa phansi, yaphawula ingxenye engamamilimitha amahlanu yesithombo esincane, yasika izimbobo ezintathu eziqondile nge-scalpel, yabe isifaka ibala enxebeni. Yazivala ngefilimu yepulasitiki. Yathi: “Kufana nebhande.” Njengoba lesi kuyisihlahla “esingamelani”, ilindele ukuthi ukutheleleka kwe-orenji kusakazeke ngokushesha kusuka endaweni yokugoma futhi ekugcineni kuzungeze iziqu ezincane. Yangibonisa ezinye izihlahla ezaziqukethe izakhi zofuzo zikakolweni eyayizelapha ngaphambilini. Ukutheleleka kunqunyelwe ekusikweni, njengezindebe ezincane ze-orenji eziseduze nomlomo omncane.
Ngo-2013, uMaynard noPowell bamemezela impumelelo yabo ku-Transgenic Research: eminyakeni eyi-109 ngemuva kokutholakala kwesifo se-chestnut saseMelika, bakha izihlahla ezibonakala sengathi zivikela, noma ngabe zihlaselwa yizikhunta eziningi ezibunayo. Ukuze kuhlonishwe umnikeli wabo wokuqala nophana kakhulu, watshala imali engaba ngu-$250,000, futhi abacwaningi bebeqamba izihlahla ngegama lakhe. Lokhu kubizwa ngokuthi iDarling 58.
Umhlangano waminyaka yonke weSahluko saseNew York se-American Chestnut Foundation wabanjwa ehhotela elincane ngaphandle kweNew Paltz ngoMgqibelo onemvula ngo-Okthoba 2018. Abantu ababalelwa ku-50 babuthana ndawonye. Lo mhlangano wawungumhlangano wesayensi futhi wawungumhlangano wokushintshana nge-chestnut. Ngemuva kwegumbi elincane lomhlangano, amalungu ashintshana ngezikhwama ze-Ziploc ezigcwele amantongomane. Lo mhlangano wawungowokuqala eminyakeni engu-28 ukuthi uDarling noma uMaynard bangayi. Izinkinga zempilo zabagcina bobabili bekude. “Besilokhu sikwenza lokhu isikhathi eside, futhi cishe njalo ngonyaka sihlala sithule ngenxa yabafileyo,” kusho u-Allen Nichols, umongameli weqembu. Noma kunjalo, isimo sengqondo sisenethemba: umuthi oguqulwe izakhi zofuzo udlule iminyaka eminingi yokuhlolwa okunzima kokuphepha nokusebenza kahle.
Amalungu esahluko anikeze isingeniso esiningiliziwe ngesimo somuthi ngamunye omkhulu we-chestnut ohlala eNew York State. UPilkey nabanye abafundi abaphothule baveze indlela yokuqoqa nokugcina impova, indlela yokutshala ama-chestnut ngaphansi kwezibani zangaphakathi, kanye nendlela yokugcwalisa inhlabathi ngegciwane le-blight ukuze kwandiswe impilo yezihlahla. Abantu ababesebenzisa i-cashew esifubeni, abaningi babo ababesebenzisa impova futhi bekhulisa imithi yabo, babuza ososayensi abasebasha imibuzo.
UBowell walala phansi, egqoke okwakubonakala sengathi yiyunifomu engavumelekile yalesi sahluko: ihembe elinentamo elifakwe ibhulukwe lebhulukwe. Ukuphishekela kwakhe okugxile ekucabangeni—umsebenzi weminyaka engamashumi amathathu ohlelwe ngokuvumelana nomgomo kaHerb Darling wokuthola ama-chestnut—akuvamile phakathi kososayensi bezemfundo, abavame ukwenza ucwaningo emjikelezweni wokuxhaswa ngezimali weminyaka emihlanu, bese imiphumela ethembisayo idluliselwa kwabanye ukuze bathengiselwe. UDon Leopold, osebenza naye eMnyangweni Wezesayensi Yezemvelo Namahlathi kaPowell, wangitshela: “Uyaqaphela kakhulu futhi uyaziphatha kahle.” “Uyagqoka amakhethini. Akaphazanyiswa ezinye izinto eziningi. Lapho ucwaningo luqhubeka, abaphathi be-State University of New York (SUNY) baxhumana naye bacela ilungelo lobunikazi lomuthi wakhe ukuze inyuvesi izuze kulo, kodwa uPowell wenqaba. Uthe izihlahla eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo zifana nama-chestnut asendulo futhi zikhonza abantu. Abantu bakaPowell bakuleli gumbi.
Kodwa wabaxwayisa: Ngemva kokunqoba izithiyo eziningi zobuchwepheshe, izihlahla eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo manje zingase zibhekane nenselele enkulu kunazo zonke: uhulumeni wase-US. Emasontweni ambalwa edlule, uPowell wathumela ifayela lamakhasi acishe abe ngu-3,000 kwi-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service yoMnyango Wezolimo wase-US, ephethe ukugunyaza izitshalo eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo. Lokhu kuqala inqubo yokugunyazwa yile nhlangano: ukubuyekeza isicelo, ukucela imibono yomphakathi, ukukhiqiza isitatimende somthelela wemvelo, ukucela imibono yomphakathi futhi bese wenza isinqumo. Lo msebenzi ungathatha iminyaka eminingana. Uma kungekho sinqumo, iphrojekthi ingase ime. (Isikhathi sokuqala sokuphawula komphakathi asikakaqalwa.)
Abacwaningi bahlela ukuhambisa ezinye izicelo ku-Food and Drug Administration ukuze ihlole ukuphepha kokudla kwamantongomane aguqulwe izakhi zofuzo, futhi i-Environmental Protection Agency izobuyekeza umthelela wemvelo walesi sihlahla ngaphansi koMthetho Wezibulala-zinambuzane Kahulumeni, odingekayo kuzo zonke izitshalo eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo. “Lokhu kuyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu kunesayensi!” kusho othile ezilalelini.
“Yebo.” UPowell wavuma. “Isayensi iyathakazelisa. Kuyacasula.” (Kamuva wangitshela: “Ukubhekwa yizinhlangano ezintathu ezahlukene kuyinto edlula umkhawulo. Kubulala ngempela ukusungula izinto ezintsha ekuvikelweni kwemvelo.”)
Ukuze bafakazele ukuthi isihlahla sabo siphephile, ithimba likaPowell lenze izivivinyo ezahlukahlukene. Bondla impova yezinyosi nge-oxalate oxidase. Balinganise ukukhula kwesikhunta esiwusizo enhlabathini. Bashiya amaqabunga emanzini futhi bahlola ithonya lawo ku-t. Akukho miphumela emibi ebonwe kunoma yiziphi izifundo - empeleni, ukusebenza kokudla okuguqulwe izakhi zofuzo kungcono kunamaqabunga ezihlahla ezithile ezingashintshiwe. Ososayensi bathumele amantongomane e-Oak Ridge National Laboratory nakwamanye amalabhorethri eTennessee ukuze ahlaziywe, futhi abatholanga mehluko ngamantongomane akhiqizwe yizihlahla ezingashintshiwe.
Imiphumela enjalo ingase iqinisekise abalawuli. Cishe ngeke ibathokozise izishoshovu eziphikisana nama-GMO. UJohn Dougherty, usosayensi osethathe umhlalaphansi waseMonsanto, unikeze izinsizakalo zokubonisana kuPowell mahhala. Ubize laba baphikisi ngokuthi “abaphikisi.” Sekungamashumi eminyaka, izinhlangano zemvelo zixwayisa ngokuthi ukuhambisa izakhi zofuzo phakathi kwezinhlobo ezihlobene kude kuzoba nemiphumela engalindelekile, njengokudala “ukhula olukhulu” oludlula izitshalo zemvelo, noma ukwethula izakhi zofuzo zakwamanye amazwe ezingase zibangele ukuthi umninikhaya angakwazi ukushintshashintsha okuyingozi ku-DNA yalolu hlobo. Bakhathazekile nangokuthi izinkampani zisebenzisa ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo ukuthola amalungelo obunikazi nokulawula izinto eziphilayo.
Njengamanje, uPowell uthe akatholanga mali ngqo emithonjeni yezimboni, futhi wagcizelela ukuthi umnikelo wezimali elabhorethri "awuboshiwe." Kodwa-ke, uBrenda Jo McManama, umgqugquzeli wenhlangano ebizwa ngokuthi "i-Indigenous Environmental Network", waveza isivumelwano ngo-2010 lapho iMonsanto yanikeza khona iChestnut Foundation kanye ne-ejensi ebambisene nayo iNew York The chapter igunyaze amalungelo obunikazi amabili okuguqulwa kwezakhi zofuzo. (UPowell uthe iminikelo yemboni, okuhlanganisa neMonsanto, ingaphansi kuka-4% wemali yayo yonke yomsebenzi.) UMcManama usola ukuthi iMonsanto (eyatholwa yiBayer ngo-2018) ifuna ngasese ukuthola ilungelo lobunikazi ngokusekela lokho okubonakala sengathi kuyi-integration yesikhathi esizayo yesihlahla. Iphrojekthi yokuzidela. "IMonsan iyimbi yonke," esho ngobuqotho.
UPowell uthe ilungelo lobunikazi esivumelwaneni sika-2010 seliphelelwe yisikhathi, futhi ngokudalula imininingwane yesihlahla sakhe ezincwadini zesayensi, uqinisekisile ukuthi lesi sihlahla asinakuba nelungelo lobunikazi. Kodwa waqaphela ukuthi lokhu ngeke kuqede konke ukukhathazeka. Wathi, “Ngiyazi ukuthi othile angathi umane nje uyisithiyo seMonsanto.” “Ungenzani? Akukho ongakwenza.”
Eminyakeni engaba mihlanu edlule, abaholi be-American Chestnut Foundation baphetha ngokuthi babengenakukwazi ukufeza imigomo yabo ngokuhlanganisa kuphela, ngakho bamukela uhlelo lukaPowell lobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo. Lesi sinqumo sabangela ukungavumelani okuthile. NgoMashi 2019, umongameli weMassachusetts-Rhode Island Chapter of the Foundation, uLois Breault-Melican, wesula esikhundleni, ecaphuna impikiswano yeGlobal Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), inhlangano elwa nobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo eseBuffalo. Justice Ecology Project); umyeni wakhe uDenis Melican naye washiya ibhodi. UDennis wangitshela ukuthi lo mbhangqwana wawukhathazeke kakhulu ngokuthi ama-chestnut kaPowell angase abe “ihhashi leTrojan”, elivule indlela yokuba ezinye izihlahla zezentengiselwano zigcwaliswe ngobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo.
USusan Offutt, isazi sezomnotho kwezolimo, ungusihlalo weKomidi Likazwelonke Lezifundo Zesayensi, Ubunjiniyela kanye Nezokwelapha, elenza ucwaningo nge-biotechnology yamahlathi ngo-2018. Uveze ukuthi inqubo kahulumeni yokulawula igxile endabeni encane yezingozi zezinto eziphilayo, futhi cishe ayikaze icabangele ukukhathazeka okubanzi kwezenhlalo, njengalezo eziphakanyiswe yizishoshovu ezimelene ne-GMO. “Liyini inani elingaphakathi lehlathi?” ebuza, njengesibonelo senkinga, inqubo ayizange ixazululwe. “Ingabe amahlathi anezimfanelo zawo? Ingabe sinesibopho sokuziphatha sokukucabanga lokhu lapho senza izinqumo zokungenelela?”
Iningi lososayensi engikhulume nabo alinaso isizathu sokukhathazeka ngezihlahla zikaPowell, ngoba ihlathi liye labhekana nomonakalo omkhulu: ukugawulwa kwemithi, ukumba izimayini, intuthuko, kanye nenani elingenamkhawulo lezinambuzane nezifo ezibhubhisa izihlahla. Phakathi kwazo, ukubuna kwe-chestnut kufakazelwe ukuthi kuwumcimbi wokuvula. “Sihlala sethula izinto eziphilayo ezintsha eziphelele,” kusho uGary Lovett, isazi semvelo yehlathi eCary Ecosystem Institute eMillbrook, eNew York. “Umthelela we-chestnut eguquliwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo mncane kakhulu.”
UDonald Waller, isazi sezemvelo samahlathi osanda kuthatha umhlalaphansi eNyuvesi yaseWisconsin-Madison, waqhubeka. Wangitshela: “Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ngichaza ibhalansi encane phakathi kwengozi nomvuzo. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ngihlala ngizikhathaza ngezingozi.” Lo muthi oguqulwe izakhi zofuzo ungase ube usongo ehlathini. Ngokuphambene nalokho, “ikhasi elingezansi komvuzo ligcwele uyinki.” Uthe i-chestnut emelana nokubuna ekugcineni izowina leli hlathi elihlaselwe yimpi. Abantu badinga ithemba. Abantu badinga izimpawu.”
UPowell uvame ukuhlala ezolile, kodwa abakungabazayo ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo bangase bamthuse. Uthe: “Azinangqondo kimi.” “Azisekelwe kwisayensi.” Lapho onjiniyela bekhiqiza izimoto noma ama-smartphone angcono, akekho okhonondayo, ngakho-ke ufuna ukwazi ukuthi yini engalungile ngezihlahla eziklanywe kangcono. “Leli ithuluzi elingasiza,” kusho uPowell. “Kungani nithi asikwazi ukusebenzisa leli thuluzi? Singasebenzisa i-screwdriver ye-Phillips, kodwa hhayi i-screwdriver evamile, futhi okuphambene nalokho?”
Ekuqaleni kuka-Okthoba 2018, ngahamba noPowell saya esiteshini sasensimini esithambile eningizimu yeSyracuse. Wayenethemba lokuthi ikusasa lezinhlobo ze-chestnut zaseMelika lizokhula. Indawo cishe ingenalutho, futhi ingenye yezindawo ezimbalwa lapho izihlahla zivunyelwe ukukhula khona. Amasimu amade ephayini ne-larch, umkhiqizo wephrojekthi yocwaningo eshiywe isikhathi eside, athambekele empumalanga, kude nomoya okhona, okwenza indawo ibe nomuzwa owesabekayo kancane.
Umcwaningi u-Andrew Newhouse elabhorethri likaPowell usevele esebenza komunye wemithi emihle kakhulu yososayensi, i-chestnut yasendle evela eningizimu yeVirginia. Lesi sihlahla singamamitha angaba ngu-25 ubude futhi sikhula engadini ye-chestnut ehlelwe ngokungahleliwe ezungezwe uthango lwezinyamazane oluphakeme ngamamitha angu-10. Isikhwama sesikole sasiboshwe emaphethelweni amagatsha athile esihlahla. UNewhouse uchaze ukuthi isikhwama sepulasitiki sangaphakathi sasibanjwe ku-pollen ye-Darling 58 ososayensi abafake isicelo sayo ngoJuni, kanti isikhwama sensimbi sangaphandle sasigcina ama-squirrel kude nama-burrs akhulayo. Konke ukusethwa kungaphansi kokubhekwa okuqinile nguMnyango Wezolimo wase-United States; ngaphambi kokususwa kwemithetho, impova noma amantongomane avela ezihlahleni ezinezakhi zofuzo ezengeziwe othangweni noma elabhorethri yomcwaningi kumele ahlukaniswe.
I-Newhouse yasebenzisa izikere zokuthena ezikwazi ukuhoxiswa emagatsheni. Edonsa ngentambo, i-blade yaphuka futhi isikhwama sawa. I-Newhouse yathuthela ngokushesha egatsheni elilandelayo elalinezikhwama futhi yaphinda inqubo. UPowell waqoqa izikhwama eziwile wazibeka esikhwameni esikhulu sepulasitiki sikadoti, njengokuphatha izinto eziyingozi eziphilayo.
Ngemva kokubuyela elabhorethri, uNewhouse noHannah Pilkey bathulula isikhwama futhi bakhipha ngokushesha amantongomane ansundu kuma-burrs aluhlaza. Bayaqaphela ukuthi bangavumeli ameva angene esikhumbeni, okuyingozi emsebenzini ocwaningweni lwe-chestnut. Esikhathini esidlule, babewathanda wonke amantongomane ayigugu aguquliwe ngokwezakhi zofuzo. Kulokhu, ekugcineni babenawo amaningi: angaphezu kwe-1,000. “Sonke senza imidanso emincane ejabulisayo,” kusho uPirkey.
Kamuva ngalolo suku ntambama, uPowell wathatha ama-chestnut waya nawo ehhovisi likaNeil Patterson endaweni yokwamukela izivakashi. KwakuyiSuku Labantu Bomdabu (uSuku lukaColumbus), kanti uPatterson, uMqondisi Osizayo we-ESF's Center for Indigenous Peoples and the Environment, wayesanda kubuya engxenyeni yesine yekhampasi, lapho ayehola khona umbukiso wokudla kwabantu bomdabu. Izingane zakhe ezimbili nomshana wakhe badlala kukhompyutha ehhovisi. Wonke umuntu wawahluba futhi wadla amantongomane. “Aseluhlaza kancane,” kusho uPowell ngokudabuka.
Isipho sikaPowell sihloselwe izinhloso eziningi. Usabalalisa imbewu, enethemba lokusebenzisa inethiwekhi kaPatterson ukutshala ama-chestnut ezindaweni ezintsha, lapho angathola khona impova eguqulwe izakhi zofuzo eminyakeni embalwa. Wahlanganyela futhi ekukhulumeni nge-chestnut ngobuhlakani.
Ngesikhathi uPatterson eqashwa yi-ESF ngo-2014, wezwa ukuthi uPowell wayezama izihlahla ezakhiwe ngezakhi zofuzo, ezaziqhele ngamakhilomitha ambalwa ukusuka e-Onondaga Nation Resident Territory. Lesi sakamuva sitholakala ehlathini ngamakhilomitha ambalwa eningizimu yeSyracuse. UPatterson waqaphela ukuthi uma iphrojekthi iphumelela, izakhi zofuzo zokumelana nezifo ekugcineni zizongena ezweni futhi zihlangane nama-chestnut asele lapho, ngaleyo ndlela zishintshe ihlathi elibalulekile ekuzibonakaliseni kwe-Onodaga. Wezwa futhi ngezinto ezikhathazayo eziqhuba izishoshovu, okuhlanganisa nabanye abavela emiphakathini yendabuko, ukuba baphikise izinto eziphilayo eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo kwenye indawo. Isibonelo, ngo-2015, isizwe samaYurok savimbela ukubhukha kwe-GMO eNyakatho California ngenxa yokukhathazeka mayelana nokungcoliswa kwezitshalo zaso kanye nokudoba i-salmon.
“Ngiyaqaphela ukuthi lokhu kwenzeke kithi lapha; okungenani kufanele sibe nengxoxo,” kusho uPatterson kimi. Emhlanganweni we-Environmental Protection Agency ka-2015 owawubanjwe yi-ESF, uPowell wanikeza inkulumo ehlelwe kahle kumalungu abantu bomdabu baseNew York. Ngemva kwenkulumo, uPatterson wakhumbula ukuthi abaholi abaningana bathi: “Kufanele sitshale izihlahla!” Intshiseko yabo yamangaza uPatterson. Wathi: “Bengingakulindele.”
Kodwa-ke, izingxoxo zakamuva zabonisa ukuthi bambalwa kubo abakhumbula ngempela indima eyadlalwa umuthi we-chestnut emasikweni awo endabuko. Ucwaningo olulandela lukaPatterson lwamtshela ukuthi ngesikhathi lapho izingxabano zomphakathi kanye nokubhujiswa kwemvelo kwenzeka ngesikhathi esifanayo, uhulumeni wase-US wayesebenzisa uhlelo olubanzi lokuphoqelelwa kokususwa kanye nokuhlanganiswa, futhi ubhubhane lwase lufikile. Njengezinye izinto eziningi, isiko le-chestnut lendawo endaweni selinyamalele. UPatterson uphinde wathola ukuthi imibono ngobunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo iyahlukahluka kakhulu. Umkhiqizi wenduku ye-lacrosse ka-Onoda u-Alfie Jacques uzimisele ukwenza izinti ngokhuni lwe-chestnut futhi usekela lo msebenzi. Abanye bacabanga ukuthi ingozi inkulu kakhulu ngakho-ke bayaphikisana nezihlahla.
UPatterson uyaziqonda lezi zikhundla ezimbili. Muva nje uthe kimi: “Kufana nomakhalekhukhwini nengane yami.” Uveze ukuthi ingane yakhe ibuya esikoleni ngenxa yobhubhane lwe-coronavirus. “Ngolunye usuku ngasebenza kanzima; ukuze bahlale bexhumana, bayafunda. Ngakusasa, njengokuthi, masilahle lezo zinto.” Kodwa iminyaka yokuxoxisana noPowell yanciphisa ukungabaza kwakhe. Kungekudala, wezwa ukuthi inzalo evamile yezihlahla zeDarling ezingu-58 ngeke ibe nezakhi zofuzo ezethulwe, okusho ukuthi ama-chestnut asendle okuqala azoqhubeka nokukhula ehlathini. UPatterson uthe lokhu kuqede inkinga enkulu.
Ngesikhathi sivakashile ngo-Okthoba, wangitshela ukuthi isizathu sokuthi kungani engakwazi ukusekela ngokugcwele iphrojekthi ye-GM ukuthi wayengazi ukuthi uPowell wayenendaba yini ngabantu abasebenzisana nesihlahla noma isihlahla. “Angazi ukuthi yini ekhona ngaye,” kusho uPatterson, ethinta isifuba sakhe. Uthe kuphela uma ubuhlobo phakathi komuntu ne-chestnut bungabuyiselwa, lapho kudingeka khona ukubuyisa lesi sihlahla.
Ngenxa yalokhu, uthe uhlela ukusebenzisa amantongomane uPowell awamnika wona ukwenza i-chestnut pudding namafutha. Uzoletha lezi zitsha endaweni yase-Onondaga futhi ameme abantu ukuthi baphinde bathole ukunambitheka kwazo kwakudala. Uthe: “Ngithemba ukuthi kunjalo, kufana nokubingelela umngane wakudala. Udinga nje ukungena ebhasini lapho ume khona ngesikhathi esidlule.”
UPowell wathola isipho samaRandi ayizigidi ezingu-3.2 esivela kwi-Templeton World Charity Foundation ngoJanuwari, okuzovumela uPowell ukuthi aqhubeke njengoba ehamba ezikhungweni zokulawula futhi enweba ukugxila kwakhe ocwaningweni kusukela ku-genetics kuya eqinisweni langempela lokulungiswa kwendawo yonke. Uma uhulumeni emnika isibusiso, uPowell nososayensi abavela kwi-American Chestnut Foundation bazoqala ukuyivumela ukuthi iqhakaze. Impova kanye nezakhi zayo ezengeziwe zizopheshulwa noma zifakwe ezitsheni ezilindile zezinye izihlahla, futhi isiphetho sama-chestnut aguqulwe izakhi zofuzo sizovela ngokuzimela endaweni yokuhlola elawulwayo. Uma sicabanga ukuthi izakhi zofuzo zingagcinwa kokubili ensimini naselabhorethri, lokhu akuqiniseki, futhi zizosabalala ehlathini - leli yiphuzu lemvelo ososayensi abalifisayo kodwa abashisekeli bezesabe.
Ngemva kokuba umuthi we-chestnut uphumule, ungawuthenga? Yebo, kusho uNewhouse, kwakuyilo uhlelo. Abacwaningi bebebuzwa njalo ngesonto ukuthi izihlahla zitholakala nini.
Ezweni lapho uPowell, uNewhouse kanye nozakwabo behlala khona, kulula ukuzwa ukuthi lonke izwe lilindele umuthi wabo. Kodwa-ke, ukushayela ibanga elifushane enyakatho ukusuka epulazini locwaningo udlule edolobheni laseSyracuse kukhumbuza ukuthi izinguquko ezinkulu ziye zenzeka kanjani emvelweni nasemphakathini selokhu kwanyamalala ama-chestnut aseMelika. I-Chestnut Heights Drive itholakala edolobheni elincane enyakatho yeSyracuse. Umgwaqo ojwayelekile wokuhlala onemigwaqo ebanzi, utshani obuhle, kanye nezihlahla ezincane zokuhlobisa ngezinye izikhathi ezigcwele igceke langaphambili. . Inkampani yezinkuni ayidingi ukuvuselelwa kwama-chestnut. Umnotho wezolimo ozimele osekelwe kuma-chestnut usunyamalale ngokuphelele. Cishe akekho okhipha amantongomane athambile namnandi kuma-burrs aqinile ngokweqile. Iningi labantu lingase lingazi nokuthi akukho lutho olulahlekile ehlathini.
Ngime ngadla isidlo sakusihlwa ngaseLake Onondaga ngaphansi komthunzi wesihlahla esikhulu somlotha esimhlophe. Lesi sihlahla sasigcwele izimbotshana eziluhlaza okotshani. Ngiyabona imigodi eyenziwe yizinambuzane emagxolweni. Siqala ukulahlekelwa amaqabunga aso futhi singase sife futhi sibhidlike eminyakeni embalwa kamuva. Ukuze ngifike lapha ngivela ekhaya eMaryland, ngadlula izinkulungwane zezihlahla zomlotha ezifile, ezinamagatsha e-pitchfork angenalutho eceleni komgwaqo.
E-Appalachia, inkampani ikhiphe izihlahla endaweni enkulu yaseBitlahua ukuze ithole amalahle ngaphansi. Inhliziyo yezwe lamalahle ihambisana nenhliziyo yezwe langaphambili lama-chestnut. I-American Chestnut Foundation isebenze nezinhlangano ezitshale izihlahla ezimayini zamalahle ezishiywe dengwane, futhi izihlahla zama-chestnut manje zikhula ezindaweni eziningi ezithintekile yinhlekelele. Lezi zihlahla ziyingxenye nje yezinhlobo ezixubile ezimelana nokulimala kwamagciwane, kodwa zingase zifane nesizukulwane esisha sezihlahla ezingancintisana nezihlahla ezinkulu zamahlathi zasendulo ngelinye ilanga.
NgoMeyi odlule, ukugcwala kwe-carbon dioxide emkhathini kwafinyelela izingxenye ezingu-414.8 ngesigidi okokuqala. Njengezinye izihlahla, isisindo se-chestnut yaseMelika esingemanzi cishe siyingxenye ye-carbon. Zimbalwa izinto ongazitshala endaweni ezingamunca i-carbon emoyeni ngokushesha kunomuthi we-chestnut okhulayo. Sinalokhu engqondweni, isihloko esanyatheliswa ku-Wall Street Journal ngonyaka odlule sasikisela, “Masibe nelinye ipulazi le-chestnut.”